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.What are Two-Spirits/Berdaches? : "Alternative gender roles were among the most widely shared features of North American societies. Male berdaches have been documented in over 155 tribes. In about a third of these groups, a formal status also existed for females who undertook a man’s lifestyle, becoming hunters, warriors, and chiefs. They were sometimes referred to with the same term for male berdaches and sometimes with a distinct term—making them, therefore, a fourth gender. (Thus, “third gender” generally refers to male berdaches and sometimes male and female berdaches, while “fourth gender” always refers to female berdaches.) Each tribe, of course, had its own terms for these roles, such as boté in Crow, nádleehí in Navajo, winkte in Lakota, and alyha: and hwame: in Mohave. Because so many North American cultures were disrupted (or had disappeared) before they were studied by anthropologists, it is not possible to state the absolute frequency of these roles. Those alternative gender roles that have been documented, however, occur in every region of the continent, in every kind of society, and among speakers of every major language group. The number of tribes in which the existence of such roles have been denied (by informants or outsider observers) are quite few. Far greater are those instances in which information regarding the presence of gender diversity has simply not been recorded. .."  - 'Two spirit' people greatly respected. - Two-Spirit. - Berdache Origin Myth.   - The Berdache Tradition. - The Berdaches. - Berdaches. - Berdaches ... and Assumptions About Berdaches. - The Berdache Spirit by Wendy Susan Parker. (Alternate Link) -  Same-Sex Marriages with Berdaches.  - What's the problem with 'Berdache'? - Two-spirited history. - We'wha (1849-1896). - We-wha of Zuni. - Zuni Berdache. - Le Berdache 20 ans après: Colloque et exposition, Université du Québec à Montréal 13 novembre 1999. - Sense and Sensuality - Two-Spirit: Alternative Sexuality in Native Culture.

Two-spirited people: "The Two-spirited person is a native tradition that anthropologists have been able to date to some of the earliest discoveries of Native artifacts. Much evidence indicates that Native people, prior to colonization and contact with European cultures, believed in the existence of three genders: the male, the female and the male-female gender, or what we now call the Two-spirited person. The term Two-spirited, though relatively new, was derived from interpretations of Native languages used to describe people who displayed both characteristics of male and female..." - What's the problem with 'Berdache'?: "While 'berdache' is in common use among white gays, Native Americans find the term offensive as it comes ultimately from the Arabic where it means roughly, 'male prostitute'. We do not appreciate having our sacred people referred to in this way. The consensus of opinion is that 'berdache' should not be used and the tribal name should be used when known. There is no consensus of opinion on a generic term, it is safest to refer to lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered Native Americans. However, some use the term GAI (Gay American Indian) or Two Spirit..." - Appropriate Terms. -  Two-Spirit Peoples. - Two spirited. - Evolution of identity for a `Berdache Boy' N/A. - Two Spirited People of the First Nations. - Native American Berdache as Mediator: Towards a Culturally Specific Understanding. - Learning about "Two-Spirited People" in the American Indians Studies Library. - Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits. - A life of Two-Spirits:  "I’ve been thinking a lot lately about what it means to be a gay man and native American. We were once revered on the reservation. Can we find the same respect again?' - Native vs. White Sex Cosmologies: Sex and Gender Variability vs. Variance in Inter- vs. Intracultural Perspective.

The traditional concept of Two-Spirited people: A First Nations perspective: "Historically, Native communities have thought of Two-Spiritedness as a gift. It was not necessary to define or impose roles on members of the community. Rather than imposing strictly binary gender roles, it was more important that everyone perform their specific role in relation to the overall survival of the community. This social philosophy led to a respect for T-S people, which allowed them to have unrestricted relationships—a respect which was spoiled by colonization. As Sue-Ellen Jacobs, a professor at the University of Washington, explains: "North Americans fit into their own varying categories of sexual identity until the strict social and gender structure of the colonies imposed a gender hierarchy rather than a continuum." Unfortunately, negative treatment of T-S people still occurs both inside and outside of Native communities. Whether Two-Spiritedness is a genetic or a psychological state of being is still a topic of debate. This thinking arises from the Western social values and discrimination that have been normalized through the North American colonization and assimilation of First Nations People. Eurocentric values tend to be black and white—a person is assigned one of two genders at birth, determined by their physiology. In doing so, the predetermined identity of female or male is expected to become reality. However, in Native communities that have maintained their unique philosophies on gender, these rigid concerns are not important. The role of T-S people in Native communities was at one time respected but, upon colonization, this respect was largely destroyed. - A place of honour: Two-Spirited people in our communities N/A (This article was once available online from: Metis Voyageur magazine) - Decolonizing the Sodomite: Queer Tropes of Sexuality in Colonial Andean Culture. - Two Spirits, Two Cultures: Shifting Navajo Gender Identity. - Directions in gender research in American Indian societies: Two spirits and other categories. - Two-Spirit & Two-Spirit like identities outside of North America. - Making the American berdache: Choice or constraint? - Third Genders: A Sampler. - Locating Third Sexes.

Two-Spirits Rising Historically, Native American Tribes Thought Gays Were Great! : " Recently, there has been a rekindling of Two-Spirit traditional practices, but the effort has not been without the slings and arrows of controversy... Not only is there a rift between Native and Non-Native Two-Spirit people, many "straight" Native Americans take a familiar post-colonialism posture (see Missionary Position), and wish the Two-Spirits would shut up and go away altogether. Hall believes, even though there is a long-standing tradition of Two-Spiritedness among Native American tribes, and that Two-Spirits once enjoyed set and honored roles in tribal structure, "Nowadays, they don't have that role." "I (will) always remember when Randy Burns and the group out in San Francisco established Gay American Indians, and I think they're celebrating something like their 25th anniversary. They set up their little table with their information on gay and lesbian activities and information on things, and a lot of the Indian people wouldn't accept it. They'd say, 'Oh, you people are an embarrassment. Why don't you leave?' and they'd spit on you and cuss at you. And that was from our own people! That homophobia still pervades most reservations. It isn't 'hello la-la land' out there." Bo Young is quick to note that any current Native American bigotry against gays and lesbians is a direct and lingering result of post-colonialism's cultural destructive influence. He believes anti-homosexual sentiments have been shoved down their throats. - A Walker Between Two Worlds. - A History of 2-Spirited People: PDF Download. - Sacred Circles A Group For Two Spirit Native Americans and Their Companions. - Sacred Rights of the International Two Spirit Gathering: Gay and transgender Native Americans find acceptance in tradition. - The Tragedy of the Holy Two-Spirited Fag. - Background & Recent developments in Two-Spirit organizing. - Two-Spirit Drag King is None of the Above. - Rainbow and red: Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits. - Shaking Our Shells: Cherokee Two-Spirits Rebalancing the World.

"--and we are still here": from berdache to two-spirit people. (Alternate Link):  "As we begin to unpack the great diversity of genders in Native North America and the ways in which sexuality informs performance of gender roles, we are drawn back to the original definition of berdache. Our research shows that there are indeed individuals today appropriately called berdache by researchers. We refer specifically to feminine boys and young males living on reservations and in urban places, both in Native and non-Native communities, who are passive sexual consorts of heterosexual and homosexual adult men. The emphasis in these relationships is sex.... On some reservations, feminine boys are used sexually by married men. In studies of male juvenile prostitutes in Seattle, Washington, it is primarily heterosexual adult males who seek out boys for passive anal and oral sex. In both Seattle and on reservations, such behavior is negatively sanctioned. It is not glamorous; it is not romantic; it is "sex for survival." These boys (aged nine to seventeen) are berdaches in the literal, original meaning of the word: boys used for sexual purposes. The married "heterosexual" men on reservations who engage in sex with boys retain their heterosexual status; they are never considered to be bisexual or homosexual. In some urban gay settings, these men are commonly called "Men who have Sex with Men (MSMs)." Reference: "Debra Boyer, "Male Prostitution: A Cultural Expression of Male Homosexuality," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation (Seattle: University of Washington, 1986). Related Note: "We are not referring to all intergenerational male-to-male relationships, but only to exploitative pedophilia, which falls in the legal domain of child abuse: the "children" are not of legal sexual consent age. We are also not describing or referring to relationships that teenage boys have with older men as they are discovering and testing their homosexuality; that is the subject of another paper." Source: American Indian Culture and Research Journal.  23(2): 91-107. - The 'berdache'/'two-spirit': a comparison of anthropological and native constructions of gendered identities among the Northern Athapaskans. - Culture taboos has made the discovery of the Illinois berdache a extraordinary encounter. - The Two-spirited Rebirth of Indigenous Nations: An Interview with Waawaate Fobister.

Sex and Spirit: Native American Lesbian Identity: "Native American and First Nations lesbians have to deal with unique issues as a result of their history, cultural status, and perceptions as Natives. They come out of a history of genocide; their people have been persecuted, killed, kidnapped, and assimilated for hundreds of years and still face lingering aspects of genocide. They face homophobia and sexism from their own people; racism from lesbians; and racism, homophobia, and sexism from the dominant society, not to mention the classism many Native Americans have to deal with. It is important to remember that Native lesbians today are not the same as the Natives that lived before the arrival of the white man. Interaction with whites and the cultural genocide perpetrated on Natives has changed Native Americans’ perception of gender and sexuality. Though it is interesting to speculate about how two-spirits were treated in traditional Native American cultures, a focus on such speculation can hide the lives of Native American lesbians today. Unfortunately, despite the encouraging things written about the acceptance and honor of the "berdache" of the past, Native lesbians today face homophobia in their own communities. This is not a traditional Native American value, but a result of the forcing of European culture and religion on Natives. The attempts of whites to destroy any tolerance and respect for female two-spirits is well reported. Writings exist from missionaries about how Native women were told not to have sexual relations with other women (Katz 298). Also, one can find how Native stories about lesbians change from positive to very negative, depending on where and when the story came from. Allen and Cavin cite creator stories in which women have the most important roles. Cavin argues that these are lesbian stories, or at the very least non-heterosexual stories (45). According to Cavin’s sources, lesbians were described in origin myths positively as being in control of the wealth and were in charge of the household and property. They were considered an asset to her family and community. Later, after Native Americans where pushed onto reservations, stories are found where relations between lesbians end in tragedy..."

Queer American Indians from New York to San Francisco are showing both their spirits: "What surprised Sabrina Wolf, when she came out to her American Indian grandmother, was the older woman’s lack of surprise. “I started by telling her, ‘I’m different,’” the white-haired, soft butch activist recalls. And she had this look of, ‘Yeah, I know.’ And then she said, ‘There’s people like you at home [among Indians], and it’s a good thing.” In addition, her grandmother advised her, “You’re gonna hear … a lot in your life, that’s it’s a bad thing, here (among white people), but it’s not a bad thing, and you’ll know about it later.’” Wolf, a lifelong San Franciscan and “urban Indian” of both white and Native ancestry, was taken aback by her grandmother’s nonchalant response — a response which, she later learned, was representative of many Native groups. The idea that various American Indian tribes historically recognized and even gave special roles to untraditionally gendered tribe members was written about in 1968, in an academic article by Professor Sue-Ellen Jacobs. But its wider acceptance has come about more recently with the development of vocal groups of queer Indians who, in addition to mining Indian history for traces of their presence, have created a modern name for people like themselves: “two-spirit.”..."

Making the American berdache: Choice or constraint? (Journal of Social History, Spring, 2002, by Richard C. Trexler): "While I obviously will not suggest that mature berdaches did not at times act with something like free choice, the present paper will show that, as far as the origin of any given berdache is concerned, free choice is surely an untenable proposition if it is applied to young boys and children below the "age of reason," while the making of berdaches out of adolescents among the Plains nations will prove to also be a social construction. I will try to integrate what we now know about the origins of the berdaches encountered during the Spanish Conquests, first with those documented only recently in the Inuit north, including Greenland, and then with the berdaches discovered within the borders of the present day United States from about 1800 until the present. Through the study of origins, I hope to render transparent one or more underlying characteristics of the berdache before the variety of time, place and conquest produced the incredible diversity that now makes the comparative study of the berdache so daunting.... The fundamental differences between the berdaches of the Arctic and those of Latin America are two. The first is the clear preponderance of so-called female berdaches over the not-inconsiderable number of male berdaches to the north, whereas to the south the historical sources rarely mention them... The second main difference between the two areas' berdaches is that, while homosexual behavior was common to the south, no incontrovertible evidence of its presence has yet emerged in the Inuit communities surveyed by the scholars of this area, although Robert-Lamblin does document three cases in Ammallik myth where same sexed individuals lie together... In his recent work, Roscoe does at one point actually recognize the force of the community in these visions. "Most tribal cultures," he says, "and especially those in which visions are credited with bestowing skills and inclinations," "do not view gender identities as being chosen." Yet throughout the book, the same writer repeatedly speaks of these same native individuals desiring an alternate gender identity, and would have us believe, as we have shown, that overwhelmingly, individuals did so desire. This repeated affirmation provides the best evidence of this author's determination to find his homosexual present in the deep American past... In the end, there was little room for the notion of free choice, and it was seldom enough claimed. Thus while the visions of future berdaches among the Plains nations seem to definitely announce a (later) departure from the infantile assignment of gender among most previous nations, the constraint that "forced" Plains young men into the status of berdache continued to be a dominant feature of this life "choice." Proof of these three summary points will of course rest in their validation or refutation by subsequent documentation and analyses. The present essay is one persons attempt to recontextualize the study of the berdache.." - Homosexuality: Two-Spirit People.

In Search of the "Berdache": Multiple Genders and Other Myths (Alternate Link): "Rediscovered and reclaimed as an ancestor to the queer tradition in North America, the "berdache" has come to symbolize an American past of tolerance and respect for queers. Rather than being shunned or hated, the "berdache" was often a powerful and valued member of the community; not simply male nor female, he or she was of a third or perhaps even a fourth distinctly different gender, free from the ordinary confines of a strictly male or strictly female "gender box" (Bullough and Bullough 1993:312) and at liberty to behave in concert with his or her own desires, to associate romantically and sexually with same-sex partners in relationships that were supposedly free of social stigma. Put simply, it was a wonderful life in a more enlightened age. Homosexuality was "institutionalized" (Benedict 1934:74; Devereaux 1937:498), cross-dressing was supernaturalized (Hauser 1990), and cross-gender role behavior was normalized. hese are indeed attractive propositions, for in presenting a past more pleasant than the present, they hold out positive hope for the future. In the spirit of willful belief, then, this paper set out to seek confirmation; to assess, through an anthropological lens, the relative truth or untruth of the view put forth above. Sadly, the critical re-reading it required revealed a tapestry of sweeping generalizations and mistakenly conflated, unrelated assumptions. But, while separating the strands that had been woven together revealed a fabric that was not quite as beautiful as at first imagined, its value had increased by virtue of its closer proximity to the truth... Conclusions: The cultural role of "berdache" was not, as Devereaux would have it, "institutionalized homosexuality," nor was it necessarily related to sexual orientation. As an "institution" it legitimized only the transformation of gender, but it did not even begin to address issues of homosexuality among women, homosexuals who did not cross-dress, or people whose sex assignment and gender identity were unified. The "berdache" did not constitute a distinctive "third gender" or "third sex," but rather was viewed in the main as an ambiguous combination of both male and female, the one manifesting itself biologically while the other found social expression. Many accounts cite parental reticence to allow a child to make the gender assignment transformation to "berdache," and while most children were likely cajoled into accepting their gender assignments, adults were virtually barred from questioning theirs. Once transformed, the "berdache" may have gained the limited protection of legitimization, but as Devereaux pointed out, it did not free him or his partner from the taunts and abuse of others. Homosexuality was never, in itself, validated, because the "berdache" was in fact not an homosexual; his or her gender was transformed precisely in order to avoid that designation. This must be the case if heterosexual men were able to engage in sexual activity with male "berdaches" under the auspices of heterosexuality. The sexual partner of a male "berdache" engaged in sexual activity with someone of his own biological sex, but neither his behavior nor his partner's was considered to be homosexual because they were of different genders, i.e., heterogendered. By a definition based solely on biological sex assignment, homosexuality was indeed legitimized; the problem is that such a definition is completely inapplicable. A EuroAmerican conception of "homosexuality" which equates biological sex with gender is totally incompatible with the far more complex native reality. The fact is that cultures providing a "berdache" status likely did so in order to avoid the designation of homosexuality by shifting genders, and did in most cases prohibit the equivalent of "homosexual" behavior: Homogendered sexual activity was not acceptable, and two males who both identified as men could not freely engage in sexual activity under any circumstance. Therefore, if homosexuality has ever been "institutionalized," and if there have ever been more than two genders, it has apparently not been among the peoples native to North America. - Genero y homosexualidad entre los Zapotecos del istmo de Tehuantepec. El caso de los muxe.- Gender in Pre-Hispanic America (PDF Download) - Metagender.

Waller MA, McAllen-Walker R (2001). One Man's Story of Being Gay and Diné (Navajo): A Study in Resiliency. In: Bernstein M & Reimann R (2001). Queer families, queer politics: Challenging culture and the state: 87-103. New York: Columbia University Press. (PDF Download) (Web Page access for PDF Download): "What is it to be gay in an American Indian family? We begin our discussion by emphasizing that the terms “Native American family” or “American Indian family” are misleading and obscure the truths about actual family realities. In the United States there are approximately 660 federally recognized tribes–360 located in the forty-eight [contiguous] states and another 300 in Alaska...As a Navajo man in a large city, Teles must navigate within a hostile dominant culture. Rather than finding an oasis in the urban gay subculture, he finds another context of marginalization. Accordingly, he looks to his Navajo family as his most important source of social support... Romanticization and Appropriation of American Indian Sexualities: The current fascination with “two-spiritedness” in the dominant gay community may be yet another instance of distortion, exotification, and exploitation of Native traditions by European Americans... Jacobs (1997) suggests that contemporary romanticization of Native American sexuality and gender diversity may be an “adventure of white homosexual males who are either appropriating cultural elements from Native cultures or imputing to Native cultures characteristics that would resolve their heartfelt desires to be recognized fully as productive and important members of their own society”(p.21). Of course, the same may be said of white lesbian researchers... Euro-centric romanticization and appropriation of Native beliefs and practices has become a psychological as well as physical health hazard to sexual minority American Indians, both on the reservation and in the city. Wright, Lopez, and Zumwalt (1997) point out that the discontinuity between Indian and dominant culture worldviews creates a sense of disorientation for many urban-dwelling Indians that is further exacerbated by deprivation of social support from family, clan, and tribe. Given these discontinuities, it is not surprising that many people report difficulty integrating their gay/lesbian and Indian identities (Chan, 1989; Espin, 1987; Garnets & Kimmel, 1991, Morales, 1989) and forging a positive sense of self (Walters, 1997).Some find that the stress associated with negotiating both gay and ethnic identity challenges their coping resources and psychological well-being (Jarvenpa, 1985; Kemnitzer, 1978). Teles describes this identity confusion as a “journey” that many gay American Indians find themselves taking... Because of the intentional and unintentional racism Teles routinely experiences with urban gay friends and acquaintances, the dominant gay community doesn’t feel like “family” to him... The same identity models that may be empowering and offer a sense of coherence to his European American counterparts discount Teles’ reality... Romanticization and irrelevant identity models contribute to the lack of accurate understanding of American Indian sexualities. This lack of understanding, coupled with poverty, generally substandard health care, racism, and other forms of oppression imposed by the dominant society, along with homophobia within some Native communities [possibly a byproduct of interaction with European Americans], may help to explain the dismal statistics that put American Indians in a class of their own as regards human suffering. One example is the rapid increase of HIV-positive and AIDS cases in Indian communities. Unlike other populations, the distribution of Native American AIDS cases has hardly changed since reporting began. The majority of cases are among men (85%). Gay/bisexual men account for 79% of thesecases (Rowell, 1997). We suggest that it is time for researchers to stop imposing European American models on Indian people and move beyond appropriating and romanticizing American Indian sexualities as “symbols of potential liberation from gender identity construction, homophobia, and sexuality containment” (Jacobs, 1997, p. 36). We concur with Jacobs (1997), who proposes an alternative motive for the study of Native sexualities, “If I can find answers... maybe the young people will stop hurting; maybe they will stop killing themselves, maybe they will be respected instead of denigrated and beaten up in their communities” (p. 26)

Bowers, Randolph (2008). Reconnecting with the Mi’kmaq (PDF Download). This led me to think of becoming a priest and minister, but during my early 20s I had to face the reality that my sexual identity was different from those around me. After finishing my first degree I moved to Toronto to ‘come out’ and face the sound of my own drum. Oddly enough, Toronto’s urban jungle crushed my small rural boy identity enough to push me to the edge of despair. It was in a very dark place that another vision came to me. This was the first time that I danced around a fire, and saw the Elders of our People. This was the first time that I saw an Elder Grandmother who I came to call Kisiku during later years. She told me it was time to come home. When I was the lowest and had a suicide plan all in place... That ‘gay’ identity never really fit for me. I am a Two Spirited Being in the Mi’kmaq tradition. This means my spirit carries the medicines of both men and women. Elders saw this in me and brought me into women’s medicine teachings. Two Spirit does not mean ‘gay’ or ‘lesbian.’ Two Spirit means we have the capacity to love both men and women, and some of us have the capacity to form intimate spiritual and physical relationships with someone of the same gender. This is a gift to the Indigenous community. In traditional times, my Elders tell me, we ‘male’ Two Spirits often became helpers of women during their moon time, carers of children and elders, and we were taken into the medicines and sometimes carried the stories, traditions, laws, customs, and some of us became highly respected leaders, teachers, craftspeople, and healers. Something tells me that today human sexuality among our people is deeply troubled – like this part of humanity among all Nations is deeply troubled. Let me just say this – Two Spirit Beings traditionally hold up the core ethical teachings of our Nation. We have been the protectors and helpers of women, children, and the Elders. This was why the European saw our people as weak, because the Mi’kmaq like many Indigenous people hold up women, children, and Elders as the heart of the Nation. We did not hide from human sexuality either – we embraced our whole-selves as human, spiritual, and sexual beings...

.The Berdache of Early American Conquest: "This paper attempts to link the facet of queer theory that explains gender and sexuality as culturally constructed identities, with the presence of the berdache in the New World at the time of the Spanish conquest. By analyzing the construction of gender and sexuality among the native peoples, in contrast to the ideologies of the Spanish, I found a clash arose which explained, in some sense, the incompatibility of the two cultures. The differences between the two cultures' gender construction established support for the very "un'natural'" or "in'essential'" nature of gender, sexuality, and the body as a means of self-identity. By realizing the issue of power and where it lies within individuals and societies, hierarchical social constructions are revealed to be connected with sexual roles. This dominant/subordinate relationship present in both cultures defines and substantiates the role that power plays in the cultural context. The use of queer theory to elucidate these complicated social and sexual relationships helps to explain the way this power structure maps onto the native people's relationship with the berdache. This paper will show how the Spaniards mapped their conceptions of power and sexual relationships onto the natives. It will address this conception by carefully analyzing the presence of hermaphrodites in Theodore de Bry's copper etchings. By visualizing the berdache through the eyes of the Spaniard, the concept of sexualizing the foreign natives is revealed to be thickly imbedded in their own gender norms..." - Native American Berdache - Two Spirit People: Gender Does Not Determine Sexuality. - Native vs. White Sex Cosmologies: Sex and Gender Variability vs. Variance in Inter- vs. Intracultural Perspective.

How We Find Ourselves: Identity Development and Two-Spirit People - by Alex Wilson (Harvard Educational Review, 66:3, 1996): "The interconnectedness of sexual identity and ethnicity contributes to the complex nature of the process of identity development. As educators, we must acknowledge that fact in the supports and services we offer to our students. Although the research on lesbian, gay, and bisexual Indigenous Americans is extensive, these inquiries are typically from an anthropological perspective. Much of this research is based on the rereading and reinterpretation of early field notes, testimony, and biographical sketches, twice removed from Indigenous American experiences, and twice filtered through non-Indigenous eyes (C. McHale, personal communication, March 21, 1996). Anthropologists and historians such as Evelyn Blackwood (1984), Beatrice Medicine (1983), Harriet Whitehead (1981), Walter Williams (1986), and Will Roscoe (1988, 1991) have contributed to a body of work that describes and documents the construction of sexuality and gender in Indigenous American communities. Their work provides a critique of Western assumptions about sexuality and gender, but generally fails to recognize the existence of and to acknowledge the contributions of "two-spirit" Indigenous Americans today. From my perspective as a two-spirit Swampy Cree woman, I will critically assess current theory in identity development through reflection on my life and identity development. This reassessment has implications for developmental theorists, counselors, and educators who engage with two-spirit people..."

 How to become a berdache: toward a unified analysis of gender diversity. (Related Information): "Berdache status was not a niche for occasional (and presumably "natural") variation in sexuality and gender, nor was it an accidental by-product of unresolved social contradictions. In the native view, berdaches occupied a distinct and autonomous social status on par with the status of men and women. Like male and female genders, the berdache gender entailed a pattern of differences encompassing behavior, temperament, social and economic roles and religious specialization - all the dimensions of a gender category, as I defined that term earlier, with the exception of the attribution of physical differences (the Navajos may be one exception; see n.74). But physical differences were constructed in various ways in Native American perception, and they were not accorded the same weight that they are in Western belief. Social learning and personal experiences (including ritual and supernat ural experiences) were considered just as important in defining individual social identity as anatomy. Viewing female and male berdache roles as third and fourth genders, therefore, offers the best translation of native categories and the best fit with the range of behaviors and social traits reported for berdaches. Conversely, characterizations of berdaches as crossing genders or mixing genders, as men or women who "assume the role of the `opposite' sex," are reductionist and inaccurate." - The Berdache: Transgenderism Among Native-Americans. - Welcome, To A WebSite About An "Other" - A Berdache's Odyssey.  - A Native American Perspective on the Theory of Gender Continuum. - Winyanktehca: Two-souls person. - Narcissism is not a dirty word - or the spiritual aspects of transsexualism. - The Hyper-male/Hyper-female And The Warrior Society. - The "berdache": Multiple Genders & Other Myths. -  Two Spirit: The third gender in Lakota and Native American Cultures N/A. - Deconstructing Gender Dichotomies: Conceptualizing the Native American Berdache - Native American Berdache: A Symbol of Identification and Power for Native and Non-Native Gay Men?

Chapter 17: Native American Societies in An Online Guide to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Trans* History. - Berdache or Trickster? A Reflection on Homosexuality, Myth and Culture: Proceedings of the international scientific conference 'Homosexuality, Which Homosexuality?'  - Moon: "If a man were blessed by Moon, he would have to become a berdache. If he were to refuse Moon's blessing, he would surely die." - What your dreams make you. - The Plains Cree - Religion and Ceremonialism - The Supernaturals. - The Trickster and the Squirrel: Western Sexuality Between Religion and Moral. - Archetypes.

Who Are the Third Sex in the 20th Century? .  - The Journey of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza De Vaca (1542). (Alternate Link) - Redefinition Of Gender and Sexuality in Pre-Columbian Times. - Gender, Sexuality, and Ceremony:  The Construction of a Pan-tribal Berdache Identity among Native North Americans (Thesis Abstract). - The Culture of Male Love (North America) The Two Spirit Tradition in Native American Experience. - The place of shamanism in ecofeminism. - Native American Sacred Traditions and Western Culture. - Free to be Responsible. - Cultural Theft: When claiming one's cultural identity turns into thievery. - An innovative affair of cultural genocide N/A (PDF Download) by Rev. Sequoyah Ade. - Extreme Prejudice: Examining Contemporary Genocide in America (Includes: An Innovative Affair of Genocide) by Rev. Sequoyah Ade - The Angryindian (Download Page: PDF Download. Author's Web Site).

A British GLBT "Navajo" Problem: - U.S. Navajos Protest Use of Their Name for UK Gay Rights Project. - Navajo on the war path over gay rights charter. - LGBT ‘Navajo’ project angers Natives.

The Third Gender N/A: (Alternate Link) "In the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, on the Pacific coast of Oaxaca, some children are born neither boys nor girls. They are muxe... In striking opposition to Mexico’s dominant mestizo culture, which is racially mixed and where machismo prevails, the population of Juchitán is predominantly Zapotec and does not condemn or reject effeminate male homosexuals. On the contrary. Here muxe (the word comes from the Zapotec adaptation of the Spanish word for woman, mujer) are generally regarded as part and parcel of society, a third element or gender, combining the assets of both the female and male, and sometimes equipped with special intellectual and artistic gifts." - EL Muxeâ: male homosexual roles among the isthmus Zapotec of southern Mexico: " With the entrance of the queer community into the political arena in North America, Europe, and elsewhere, muxeâs, too, are increasingly drawn to the political realm. The convergence of highly political Zapotec culture with the emergence of homosexual politics has led many muxeâs to become politically active and organized. Las IntrZpidas, the major queer/muxeâ organization in Juchit¦n, is outspoken in local politics regarding homosexual rights, though somewhat paradoxically it is an open supporter of the right-wing PRI party, rather than the leftist Zapotec party, COCEI, that has dominated juchiteco politics for two decades. Despite the increasing influence of the outside world on the muxeâ lifestyle, it seems unlikely that it will lose its distinctive character anytime in the near future. Neither the importation of an intimidating machismo nor the muxeâsâ involvement in broader queer movements appear to be capable of undermining the sense of pride muxeâs carry for themselves as muxeâ."

CONNECTIONS between the queer and indigenous communities in Canada : a conversation. - The "Native Americans & Homosexuality" Forum N/A. - A Native American Perspective on the Theory of Gender Continuum. (Alternate Link) - Chrystos on Queer Native America. - Europe Exported Lesbian/Gay Oppression to the Americas. - The fence. - "A Curious Double Insight": The Well of Loneliness and Native American Alternative Gender Traditions. - Without Reservations: Native American Lesbians Struggle to Find Their Way. - Bryce's Story: On Being a Transgender Native American. - Healing a generation of hard work (Must Scroll). - Two-Spirit People: A (Re)Weaving Healing from historical trauma. Celebrating our survival. Creating a warp and weft to weave our continuance. - GayWest Rural Two Spirit Youth CD Package Project: "GayWest is now working on a CD package project which will support and inspire Two-Spirit Youth (Gay/Lesbian/Bisexual/Transgender/Intersexed) from all nations. The package will made up of series of audio CDs and one computer interactive CD. Each audio compact disk will contain eight 10 minute audio clips of messages from Two-Spirit speakers with positive perspectives and good inspirations on living as a Two Spirited person. The Interactive Compact disks will contain longer audio clips plus video, positive images of Two Spirited youth, relevant stories, and history of GLBTI community, resource links, and much more..."

Urban Two-Spirited Youth Must be Empowered: "Canada’s Indigenous People remain one of the most marginalized groups across the land... Unfortunately, the Two Spirit youth community is further marginalized and living in an oppressed state, and at-risk for suicidal tendencies... First, due to homophobic attitudes within mainstream society they are at risk of rejection and social isolation. Second, and what may be most difficult for Two Spirit youth are that they in turn also have a higher chance of being rejected and socially isolated within their own families and home communities at large. The experience of double estrangement for Two Spirit youth no doubt contributes to feelings of inadequacy, cultural confusion and a lack of a self-identity... Many, grappling with identity issues are unable to find any sense of belonging, a key attribute to youth success... In summary, it is encouraged for all to learn more about Two Spirit peoples, and their history in order to improve upon the economic, cultural, social and personal prospects of urban Two Spirit youth by the development of more awareness and research to address the high rates HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases contracted, social inequalities, double estrangement, and lack of self-identity that Two Spirit youth experience." - Two Spirit Organization Denied By Their Own and the City of Edmonton!: "The Two Spirit Circle of Edmonton Society has been overlooked, forgotten or just downright denied inclusion in the latest edition of “A Guide To Aboriginal Edmonton”. What motivated the omission of the fact of our existence and our contact information is bewildering...Two Spirit peoples and our place in Nehiyaw culture and history in the Edmonton area is beginning to build momentum and we see this ‘oversight’ as a bump in our road to a full return to the Nehiyaw circle of life. We give thanks to all the individuals who were responsible for the Guide for forgetting us and by doing so providing us this distinct opportunity to speak our own truth”, says Mr. Jenkins. “W e’ve been overlooked, forgotten, denied, bashed, beaten, murdered or ridiculed for too long and it’s time to stop and the only way that’ll get accomplished is by taking responsibility for ourselves. Indigenous communities throughout the Americas can no longer keep their heads in the sand about the importance of Two Spirit peoples - we need each other as much, if not more, now than we ever did before.”

Date Rape: " For gay or two-spirited males, sexual assault can lead to feelings of self-blame and self-loathing attached to their sexuality. There is already a lot of homophobic feelings in society to trouble two-spirited males about their sexuality. Being sexually assaulted may lead a gay man to believe he somehow "deserved it," that he was "paying the price" for his sexual orientation. Unfortunately, this self-blame can be reinforced by the ignorance or intolerance of others who blame the victim by suggesting that a gay victim somehow attracted the assault or was less harmed by it because he was gay. Gay men may also hesitate to report a sexual assault due to fears of blame, disbelief or intolerance by police or health professionals..." - Two Spirited Peoples Forum.

Two-Spirited Youth Program (PDF Download). - Gay Lesbian Bisexual Two-Spirited Alberta Youth Outreach. - First Nations gay youth brings support to Smithers N/A. - The Toronto Trans and Two-Spirited Primer: An Introduction to Lower-income, Sex-working and Street-involved Transgendered, Transsexual & Two-Spirit Service Users in Toronto (by Trans Programming at the 519: PDF Download). - Discrimination Against Two-Spirited People: "The Ontario First Nations AIDS and Healthy Lifestyle Survey, which was completed in 1993, contained a section that explored views of homosexuality in various Aboriginal communities (i.e., on-reserve).  In the Survey it was stated that:“The majority of respondents felt that homosexuality was wrong, and perceived their family and community to support this view.” This statement is indicative of the pervasiveness of homophobia in First Nations’ communities.  It has been our experience at 2-Spirited People of the 1st Nations that many of our members have been forced to leave their home communities due to intolerance of sexual diversity and, in many cases, at very young ages.  Many adolescent two-spirited people arrive in large urban centres with an inadequate education to find employment and many our forced into the sex trade as a means of survival.  Thus the affects of racism and homophobia often leads to high risk and self-destructive behaviour... Rejection by one's own cultural group can be psychologically devastating. “Two-Spirit[ed] People ... have experienced homophobia resulting in rejection from family and community.  Some individuals experience internalized homophobia, and an inability to accept their own sexuality due to judgemental attitudes from society in general.  Lack of acceptance produces ramifications of substance abuse, sexual, mental & physical abuse, no family or community support, internalized racism, sex trade, language barriers, low self-esteem, shame, fear, guilt, lack of work experience/education, lack of safer sex negotiating skills, sexual identity crisis and lack of peer counselling.  This scenario has produced isolation which may result in suicide.” ... As two-spirited men, you know there is not room for your life on the reserve.  Your sexuality is not tolerated and many men leave to find urban centres where they can express themselves.  Many men live a dual life: Bisexuality on the reserve is more common than you think.  If you are one strong enough to be who you are, you are ridiculed, harassed and only sometimes understood as again being “different.”

Two-Spirited & Proud: "Richard Jenkins, a 42-year-old from Alberta, formally committed himself to his long-time partner, Pierre, last month. According to my invitation, it wasn't marriage, but a "commitment ceremony" between the men. And not your run-of-the-mill commitment ceremony either, but a traditional Cree ceremony, conducted by an elder instead of a clergy member or justice of the peace. The couple and all the guests wore the usual wedding attire of suits and bright dresses. But eagle feathers were exchanged instead of rings and the elder spoke in Cree, uttering the same pledges that have been spoken for generations. No allowances or changes to Cree legislation had to be made in this case..." - Don't Follow America: Tribes Should Lift Bans On Gay Marriage: "I've long known that about half of America doesn't like gay people. It's been made pretty clear, most recently with the rejection of numerous marriage equality bills, and the approval of anti-gay marriage legislation in 37 states. But now, to my dismay, Indian Country is following the white man's lead. .." - Gay Native Americans Rediscover 'Two-Spirit' Identity.

Chrystos on Queer Native America: "Though queer Native Americans, or two-spirit people, as we call ourselves, have huge gatherings every year, we don't tend to be as cohesive as other queer communities, which is more typical of the way native people are in general. We aren't as institutionalized. A lot of what happens is based on personal relationships. I'm in the process of making a film about two-spirited women, and we'll be filming this summer out on the reservation. One of the women we'll be focusing on is called Smiley. She lived for years as a butch-identified dyke in Seattle. Hopefully, the film will make our lives more visible. You don't see native people on the 6 o'clock news, and queer native people are entirely invisible even in the gay community where, I have to tell you, I thought it would be different... We don't have access to media power. There is no national native news anchor, for instance, when there are Asian, Latino and black anchors. We don't have a history month. We do not have the ear of the American public, for specific reasons: because the original intent of the "Founding Fathers" was to eradicate native people from the earth. There was never any intention to eradicate African people, though they were treated as property, which is horrible enough. But they weren't systematically murdered because they were in the way... And having all the known queers being white is also repulsive to me. I don't think mainstream queer culture has even noticed that yet. Not too long ago they had some show on TV about lesbians, a women's program, maybe Vanessa Redgrave was in it. In the paper ad, all of them were white, all blond. That really scares me, the German Reich values."

San Diego Two-Spirit Group Seeking Members (2006): "Karen Vigneault (Ipai/Kumeyaay), from the Santa Ysabel reservation, is a woman on a mission. She wants to re-establish San Diego's first Native American LGBT group, "Nations of the Four Directions." This group was active in the early to mid 90's and participated in powwows, San Diego Pride, and HIV/AIDS education. Their mission was to provide social support to the Two Spirited Native American community of San Diego. The group disbanded when the core members of the group moved away or had to devote attention to their personal lives. Over the past year, Karen has received encouragement from friends, fellow tribal members, and acquaintances, to revive the Two-Spirit support system that once existed in San Diego. After much thought and spiritual reflection, she�s ready to start rebuilding..."

Sinister Wisdom: A Multicultural Journal by and for Lesbians:  "Two Spirit Women of First Nations (Deadline: March 1, 2007) - Guest Editors: Chrystos (Menominee) and Sunny Birdstone (Ktunaxa): Colonialization has marginalized Indigenous women (as well as men), making Native Dykes almost completely invisible. We celebrate the survival of Two Spirit women of First Nations in this issue. Submissions may be in any format - taped interviews, dialogues, as well as fiction, poetry, etc. Please respect certain definitions, which have often been violated - ie. we ask for work from lesbians who are Native in this lifetime only, recognized by their tribes or communities (although a BIA number is not required) and willing to use their name rather than a pseudonym (this is to help prevent submissions of non-authentic work). We define Indigenous Dykes as coming from the Americas, as well as the Pacific (Hawaii, New Zealand, Australia), with a land base (ie. reservation, ranchero, etc.) and a tribal affiliation (Maori, Koori, Cree, etc.). Government recognition of tribal status is not necessary (ie. we recognize the Duwamish). We are particularly interested in stories from dykes who were in residential schools, Elders, incarcerated, & in honor of those who have passed on (Barbara Cameron NationShield, Smiley Hillaire). Edited by Chrystos (Menominee) and Sunny Birdstone (Ktunaxa). Megwetch."

Academic

University Courses: Transgender Histories, Identities, and Politics. - Antropology of Sexualities (Word Download). Coloring Queer  (Word Download): "Queer Studies and Ethnic Studies often seem at odds.  While scholars of both fields tout their dedication to social justice, they frequently ignore the very issues of one another.  Myopic white privilege and homophobia within communities of color appear to lay at the root of this seemingly benign neglect.  This course addresses the disciplinary void by illuminating the very intersection of race and sexuality through queer communities of color themselves.  The course focuses less on the causes of the erasure and more on how queer individuals of color negotiate family, race, and desire, and ultimately carve out spheres of sexual fulfillment in both positive and destructive ways..."

The Will Roscoe Bibliography. - Homepage. - How I Became a Queen in the Empire of Gender. - Native American healing and spirituality, wolves, the maya and aztecs, and ancient beliefs. - An Aztec Two-Spirit Cosmology: Re-sounding Nahuatl Masculinities, Elders, Femininities, and Youth. - Dyke Psyche: Native American Two-Spirit People. - The Toronto Trans and Two-Spirit Primer: An Introduction to Lower-income, Sex-working and Street-involved Transgendered, Transsexual & Two-Spirit Service Users in Toronto: PDF Download.  

Social Work and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Two-Sprited People. - Remembering Barbara Cameron. - The tragic murder of openly gay, Two-Spirit Navajo youth Fred Martinez, Jr., has presented many challenges and opportunities to local, regional and national media covering the story. - Canadian Caucus for Two-Spirited and Queers of Colour, Egale Canada. - Showing the True Colours of Montreal’s Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Community: Conference to focus on issues of diverse cultures and sexualities. The Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) announced today that it will host Out in Colour, the first conference to address issues of concern to members of Montreal’s diverse cultural communities who are also lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, or two-spirited (LGBTTS)..." - Making Traditional Spaces: Cultural Compromise at Two-Spirit Gatherings in Oklahoma.

Two Spirit People: American Indian Lesbian Women and Gay Men (Monograph Published Simultaneously As the Gay & Lesbian Social Services , Vol 6, No 2, 1997) (Paperback) edited by Lester Brown (Amazon - ). Book Review. .

Becoming Two-Spirit: Gay Identity and Social Acceptance in Indian Country by Brian Joseph Gilley (2006). Amazon. Two Spirits: A Story of Life With the Navajo by Walter L. Williams and Toby Johnson (2005). Amazon. - Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America by Will Roscoe (2000). Amazon. - Men as Women, Women as Men: Changing Gender in Native American Cultures by Sabine Lang, translated by John L. Vantine (1998). Amazon. - Two-Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality edited by Sue-Ellen Jacobs, Wesley Thomas, Sabine Lang (1997) Amazon.  - Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture by Walter L. Williams (1992). Amazon. - Living the Spirit by Will Rosco (1988). Amazon.

American Indian Gay & Lesbian Bibliography. - Serving the Two-Spirit Community: A guide for librarians. - Two-Spirit Youth: Trauma and Healing: Citations and Additional Resources. - Queer Theory: Native American Books.

Health & HIV/AIDS

Health Survey of Two-Spirited Native Americans (07/2002-06/2007) (Alternate Link): "Native American (NA) gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) individuals (whom we will refer to as two-spirits) represent a population facing challenges from both within the NA and GLBT communities. They are a drastically understudied and underserved group, at risk for multiple psychological and health problems. There are no national, quantitative, representative studies of this population on any topic..." - Understanding Two-Spirits: "It goes without saying that, since we are in the Native American capital of the world, that there are bound to be a few queer Indians running around. What may surprise you is the lack of funding and resources available to the Native American community when it comes to dealing with HIV and AIDS awareness and coming out support groups. One organization, the Tulsa Two-Spirited Men’s Group, is dedicated to ensuring that the Native American Gay and Lesbian Community won’t go unnoticed..." - Aboriginal Diversity: "An Approach to Aboriginal Awareness".  - Workshop addresses gay-bashing and American Indians.

Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories. [Medicine, B. (2002). In W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes, & D. N. Sattler (Eds.)] - Walters KL, Simoni JM, Horwath PE (2001). Sexual orientation bias experiences and service needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, and two-spirited American Indians. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 13(1/2): 133-49. Journal Index. Abstract Page: PDF Download. - Darrell Joe - gay Navajo tribe member provides services for gay tribe members. - Call For Papers: Intersections of Native American Studies and Queer Studies. - Inventory of Aboriginal Services, Issues and Initiatives in Vancouver: Two-Spirit / LGBT.

Two-spirit women’s experience of homophobia in the context of HIV/AIDS Service provision. - Two-spirit Applies Courage to Adversity. - Aboriginal Two Spirit Women’s Domestic Violence Fact Sheet. - Mind, body, and spirit: Use of traditional healing among two-spirit Native women. - Best Practices for LGBTQ, Two-Spirited Population. - Aboriginal Youth Concepts of Healthy Sexuality in British Columbia: Final Report (2008). - A Study on Issues that Impact on the Holistic Health of Two Spirit Youth in Toronto.

Dancing To Eagle Spirit Society: The purpose of the society is to advance Native American healing and spiritual principles for aboriginal and non-aboriginal people who self identify as two spirit persons. To educate the public on the Sweat lodge ceremony and other Native American spiritual practices.

20th International 2 Spirit Gathering (2008): Native youth suicide was highlighted as an emerging concern of great magnitude in the Two Spirit community, in addition to unabated levels of HIV transmission during more than a quarter of a century of the pandemic. Escalating levels of cuts in federal funding directed to prevention and services among Native health and human service organizations have increasingly raised alarm across Native Country.  In 2008 Native American HIV transmission rates are equaled only by sub-Saharan Africa, it was reported at the International AIDS Conference in Mexico City.  Two Spirit Press Room presented information about the 20th  International Two Spirit Gathering at a 3 day Indigenous pre-conference in August, at the invitation of the Ottawa based Canadian Aboriginal AIDS Network.  Since 1981 AIDS has claimed 25 million people worldwide, and Native American people continue to be disproportionately impacted by HIV. - Two-Spirited but Not Accepted: Two-Spirit males are at a higher risk for suicide than other aboriginal males and white gays.Two-Spirit youths in urban areas are more likely to become street kids with the guys more likely to become male prostitutes and rent-boys than their heterosexual counterparts and white gay counterparts. Finally, Two-Spirits have a much higher risk of abusing and becoming addicted to drugs, and sharing dirty needles. These kids are in many instances the highest risk group in all of Canada

Remembering Two-Spirits This Thanksgiving: I am also reminded of my Two-Spirit Native American brothers and sisters who struggle with their families and tribes not approving of their sexual identities and gender expressions as many of us do with our families and faith communities. “Yes, there’s internalized homophobia in every gay community, but as Native Americans we are taught not to like ourselves because we’re not white. In our communities, people don’t like us because we’re gay,” Gabriel Duncan, member of Bay Area American Indian Two Spirits (BAAITS), told the Pacific News Service. And consequently, many Two-Spirit Native Americans leave their reservations and isolated communities hoping to connect with the larger LGBTQ community in urban cites. However, due to racism and cultural insensitivity, many Two-Spirits feel less understood and more isolated than they did back home. - Acceptance is crucial for two-spirit people: After more than two decades of living mostly in Vancouver, Evan Adams has returned home to his Sliammon band reserve near Powell River. A prominent gay actor who finished a medical degree and is now British Columbia’s first aboriginal-health physician adviser, Adams is settling in with his partner and their son in their own house. “It was a big homecoming,” Adams, 41, told the Georgia Straight about the warm welcome he and his family received from band members when they moved in on April 4. It was quite a different world for Adams, who, like many young Natives, had to leave his ancestral community for an urban area because he felt his sexuality wasn’t accepted by his own people. For many, acceptance is hard to come by even in the cities, where they also face discrimination because they’re aboriginal.

Thoms JH (2007). Leading an Extraordinary Life: Wise Practices for an HIV prevention campaign with Two-Spirit men (PDF Download). From Executive Summary: This study identifies the unique and complex barriers that hinder 2-Spirit men from transforming their knowledge of HIV into the adoption of consistent safer sex behaviours. The critical findings are that Two-Spirit men have lived lives of family and community shaming, estrangement, and abuse, caused in large part by Aboriginal  community homophobia. These experiences have greatly diminished Two-Spirit men’s self-esteem. An individual’s self-esteem is directly linked to their ability to change risky sexual behaviour. In other words, low self-esteem and Aboriginal homophobia are fundamental barriers to Two-Spirit men’s adoption of safer sex behaviours. The study asked: how can social marketing tools be applied to eliminate these barriers? ... The study includes a large historical chapter that documents the fact that Two-Spirit people were widely accepted, dignified, and led “an extraordinary life” in traditional times. It identifies how colonizers applied calculated methods to instill homophobia in Aboriginal communities and destroy the dignity and respect of Two-Spirit people. Today, Aboriginal community re-acceptance of Two-Spirit people is the most concrete incentive for Two-Spirit men to adopt safer sex behaviours.

What are American Indian/ Alaskan Natives’ (AI/AN) HIV prevention needs? - 2-Spirited People & HIV / Aids Strategy. - AIDS & Two-Spirited. (PDF Download): "Men who have sex with men constitute 52.4% of infections among Aboriginal males." - Part 2:  Sexual and Reproductive Health Issues of Concern to Aboriginal People: Issues for Everyone: Unit 14 — Two-Spirit People and Sexual Diversity. - Attitudes and Beliefs Towards HIV and AIDS Among Aboriginal Peoples Living in British Columbia: "Also, HIV/AIDS is associated with injection drug use, another reality that holds negative connotations within many Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal communities. We believe that an important first step in HIV/AIDS education is to dispel fear of the disease by building knowledge through culturally appropriate teaching. For HIV/AIDS, this includes addressing issues around homophobia and addictions. In the following study we use a multivariate logistic analysis to identify differences in attitudes and beliefs towards HIV/AIDS..." - Raven's Eye: The Aboriginal Newspaper of British Columbia & Yukon: " "The Two Spirit Gathering is created out of a need for a space where two-spirited people can feel safe, to have a community of our own," said Lafferty. "There's still a lot of homophobia out there, not only in the world at large but within our own community, so there is a real need for us to be together and share our stories." - Two-Spirit Voices - Volume 1(1), Volume 2(2) Newsletter by NNAAPC N/A. - Two-Spirit Update Newletter by NNAAPC: 2002-03. - Health Survey of Two-Spirited Native Americans. - A Study Comparing Aboriginal Two Spirit Men Who Utilize AIDS Service Organizations Compared to Those Who Do Not.

HIV Prevention Issues Among American Indian and Alaska Native “Two-Spirits” (PDF Download): "There is a paucity of research and few culturally relevant services addressing the health concerns and HIV risk and prevention needs of two-spirits. In this article, we overview elements of an indigenist stress-coping model for use in HIV prevention research and practice, CDC surveillance data on Natives, key research findings related to two-spirits and HIV risk, and our current research project on the topic... Through December 2000, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported 2,337 cases of AIDS among Natives (1897 for males and 439 for females) in the United States. Although this absolute number is relatively small, the AIDS case rate per 100,000 for Natives is 12.7 (17.3 for males and 8.3 for females), which is much higher than for Whites (7.9; 14 for males and 2.2 for females). For men, the major modes of transmission were MSM (57%), IDU (16%), and MSM and IDU (16%). For Natives, this last category is higher than for any other ethnic or racial group. Discouraging as they are, the AIDS surveillance data are likely huge underestimates for many reasons. First and most importantly, many Natives with AIDS are misclassified as non-Natives... Specific research on sexuality and sexual orientation among two-spirits is limited to a few recent studies (i.e., Saewyc et al., 1996; 1998). Findings indicate that, compared to non-Natives, Native youth have a higher prevalence of self-reported GLBT identities and a higher prevalence of sexual risk factors (e.g., histories of abuse or running away); earlier onset of heterosexual intercourse; and, among Native lesbian and bisexual girls, more frequent intercourse... There are no published studies of adult two-spirits and HIV risk... Recent anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests that, indeed, two-spirits are at higher risk for trauma than their Native heterosexual and non-Native GLBT counterparts. Two-spirits not only contend with racism and colonization from non-Natives (heterosexual as well as GLBT) but also must deal with pervasive heterosexism or homonegativity in Native communities... Our NIMH-funded HONOR Project is the first study to focus on HIV risk among urban two-spirits. Grounded in the indigenist stresscoping model, it examines the interrelationships among traumatic stress exposures, substance use, mental health, and HIV risk behaviors among 72 two-spirit community leaders and 400 two-spirit individuals across six sites: Los Angeles, San Francisco/Oakland, Seattle/Tacoma, Tulsa, Minneapolis/St. Paul, and New York City... "

Aboriginal Strategy on HIV/AIDS in Canada (Download Page: PDF Download). - Ontario Aboriginal HIV/AIDS Strategy: "Getting people to open up and talk about sex, homophobia and AIDS phobia are some of the biggest obstacles to dealing with this issue," says LaVerne Monette. "That, and the tendency to blame victims rather than trying to help them or giving people the information they need to keep them healthy". LaVerne is the provincial coordinator of the Ontario Aboriginal HIV/AIDS Strategy and a board member of Two-Spirited People of the First Nations. "The fears and intolerance that many Aboriginal people with HIV/AIDS experience in their communities means that many leave home and come to large communities like Toronto, Sudbury or Thunder Bay to get help or simply some understanding," says LaVerne. "Homophobia doesn?t belong to First Nations people. Before Europeans arrived, gays or two-spirited people as they are known in the Aboriginal community, were accepted and respected. The spirit of tolerance that existed was lost as foreign values were imposed on children and their families." Much of the work that goes on under the Aboriginal HIV/AIDS Strategy involves outreach and education to change biases and attitudes in the community, and providing an opportunity where people can begin to talk about it in a spirit of acceptance and openness." (Aboriginal Healing & Wellness Publications)

 Addressing Homophobia In Relation To HIV/AIDS In Aboriginal Communities: "Conclusions: Preliminary results from the literature review reveal that there has been little or no advocacy done to protect the rights of Two Spirit people at-risk of HIV infection and living with HIV/AIDS, despite the fact that this population has experienced the brunt of the HIV epidemic in the Aboriginal population. Issues and rights related to gender and sexual orientation must be addressed by Aboriginal governments and communities as they increasingly take control of their health services and negotiate self-government agreements with Canada." - Addressing Homophobia in Relation to HIV/AIDS in Aboriginal Communities: PDF Download. - Embracing Our Two Spirited Relatives (Mending the Sacred Hoop Technical Assistance Project Introductory Manual 2003): PDF Download. - Trauma and HIV Risk Among Urban Gay/Bisexual/Two Spirit American Indian Men: Research Findings and Decolonizing Practice Strategies: "Findings revealed that two spirit Native men were more likely to report being victimized and engaging in HIV risk behaviors than heterosexual Native men. Moreover, prevalence of HIV was surprisingly high." 

Ryan B (2003). A New Look at Homophobia and Heterosexism in Canada. Canadian AIDS Society. Internet (http://www.cdnaids.ca/web/repguide.nsf/cl/cas-rep-0188): "2-Spirited People of the 1st Nations (TPFN) became an organization in Toronto in 1989. They recently released a report titled, “Voices of Two-Spirited Men: A Survey of Two-Spirited Men Across Canada” (Monette, Albert & Waalen, 2001). This initiative demonstrates the new paradigm of Aboriginal commuity based research, being that Aboriginal people ask the questions, own the research agenda, and ensure that the community is aware of the findings. The survey had 189 respondents from six regions of Canada. Half reported that they were HIV-positive and most identified as Two Spirits (58%) or gay (48%), some using both terms. The report concludes, "The core issue of homophobia must be addressed if we seriously hope to see a reduction in risk-taking behaviour among Two-Spirited men. There are too many Two-Spirits who are excluded from the circle, estranged from their traditions, families, and communities. Our survey respondents have shown us their deep craving for self-esteem, familial love, community belonging, and spiritual connection. If their families and reserves reject them – if their traditional healers, elders, and teachers denounce them – they will try to find what they are seeking elsewhere. More than any other factor, it is the sense of alienation that contributes to engaging in the high-risk activities that make them vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. The painkiller used, and the dosage, is as individual as the pain and the pain threshold. - Critical issues in practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual and two-spirit people educational module for professionals in the fields of health and allied health. By Shari Brotman and Bill Ryan (2001)

Monette L, Albert D, Waalen J (2001). Voices of Two-Spirited Men, A Survey of Aboriginal Two-Spirited Men Across Canada, 2-Spirited People of the 1st Nations. Toronto. Internet: http://www.uoguelph.ca/~asa/data/Voices_of_Two-Spirited_Men-Part_One.doc -  http://www.uoguelph.ca/~asa/data/Voices_of_Two-Spirited_Men-Part_Two.doc - http://www.2spirits.com/Voice2SpiritMen.pdf : "This study is about knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and social conditions of Aboriginal, two-spirited men across Canada. It was commissioned by 2-Spirited People of the 1st Nations in Toronto and was distributed by researchers at the Centre for Quality Service Research, Ryerson University. Aboriginal people representing various communities were involved in the development of the survey questions... These two-spirited men face enormous pressures - racism, homophobia, poor housing. Many have experienced homelessness and unemployment.  Yet they are very concerned about the threat of HIV in their communities of origin.  They express a great deal of worry for Aboriginal people. Almost half of them are HIV+, yet many of them avoid medical treatment due to fear of discrimination because of their status and lack of information about where to go for services... Other factors that place Aboriginal people at risk are outlined in the Ontario Aboriginal HIV/AIDS Strategy (1996). They include the high rates of sexually transmitted diseases, non-consensual sex (sexual assault, incest, abuse), lack of self-esteem, intravenous and injection drug use (IDU), the abuse of alcohol especially in conjunction with other drugs, and limited safer sex education. "For two-spirit people, and in particular two-spirit youth, whose identity may be repeatedly assaulted by racism and homophobia, the risk for suicide is dangerously high" (Manitoba Aboriginal AIDS Task Force, 1998)... our focus group interviews seem to show that urban Aboriginal gays do not seem to identify themselves as two-spirited but rather as "gay"... In a small study of transsexuals (n=40), half of whom were of Aboriginal ancestry, Rekart et al. (1993) found that this group faced serious social difficulties including homelessness, discrimination, physical abuse, racism and homophobia. HIV risk behaviours were common including unprotected receptive anal intercourse (85%), prostitution (90%), and infection drug use with needle sharing (62%)... For some participants, disclosure of sexual orientation and HIV positive status was a difficult process. Many of the participants expressed an early realization and rejection of the (gay) "party scene." The participants also described many of the difficulties of coming out on the reserve and within the Aboriginal community... Participants identified how historically the Berdache or two-spirited people were considered important members of the community. However, the participants also described how present day attitudes, namely the lack of acceptance of gay identified individuals and people living with HIV/AIDS have manifested into ostracizing and discrimination from within the Aboriginal community and even from band leaders and Aboriginal governments. These circumstances have forced some of the participants off of their reserves... Many of the participants came from and lived in a variety of foster homes, shelters, and rooming houses and/or were involved with Children's Aid Society.  They also described their current crisis in lack of housing.  Several of the participants have lived on the streets surviving through drug trafficking and/or the sex trade... Practically all of the participants survived by working in the sex trade and/or the drug trade.  One participant described his alleged involvement in other criminal activity such as break and enters... All participants described experiencing discrimination of some form.  One participant described his experiences of racism (within the gay community). Other participants elucidated their experiences of homophobia within their respective families and Aboriginal communities... Despite many of difficulties that the participants described it seems all of them have found some way to cope and survive. Most notably many of the focus group participants used humour to deal with their circumstances. Most of the participants appeared highly independent and one participant described it as "taking care of oneself."...

Deschamps G (1998). We Are Part of a Tradition: A Guide on Two-Spirited People for First Nations Communities. Mino-B'maa:diziwin, 2-Spirited of the 1st Nations, Toronto: PDF Download. A Quebec version of the document having the same title "We Are Part of a Tradition: A Guide on Two-Spirited People for First Nations Communities" was produced by the First Nations of Quebec and Labrador Health and Social Services Commission: PDF Download. "We, as the two-spirited community, must heal. We must re-learn that to be two-spirited is an honour. We have grown up with the single message that lesbians and gay men are sick. We are in the process of rebuilding a positive self-image as a result of this past. And if, as in the larger First Nations community, two-spirited people suffer from suicide, substance abuse and short life spans, then we must recognize this as symptom of a very different illness. We, as two-spirited people, identify ourselves very strongly as members of the First Nations. We take an interest in the future of our Nations and wish to play an active role in that future... Rejection by one's own cultural group can be psychologically evastating. “Two-Spirit[ed] People . . have experienced homophobia resulting in rejection from family and community. Some individuals experience internalized homophobia, and an inability to accept their own sexuality due to judgemental attitudes from society in general. Lack of acceptance produces ramifications of substance abuse, sexual, mental & physical abuse, no family or community support, internalized racism, sex trade, language barriers, low self-esteem, shame, fear, guilt, lack of work experience/education, lack of safer sex negotiating skills, sexual identity crisis and lack of peer counselling. This scenario has produced isolation which may result in suicide.” [McLeod, Albert, and Peterson, Treasure (1993) Care and Treatment of Aboriginal People with HIV/AIDS (Manitoba Aboriginal AIDS Task Force). Winnipeg, March 1993.] ... The affect of racism on Aboriginal peoples in Canada has been well documented. This oppression has resulted in many social ills that plague First Nations people today. Poverty, substance abuse, violence and suicide are all part of the reality for Aboriginal people. As in the larger First Nations community, two-spirited people suffer from the same adversities. However, these problems are compounded as many two-spirited people are rejected and ostracized by their own communities. In a world that does not honour indigenous people, two-spirited people suffer “triple oppression” -- as Natives, as homosexuals, and in the case of two-spirited lesbians, as women. In many cases, the internalization of negative stereotypes about two-spirited people has led to self-destructive behaviour... AIDS-Related Stigma has had dire consequences for two-spirited people. The effects of being both homosexual and Aboriginal are devastating. Two-spirited people face discrimination from inside and outside their communities. Problems of identity formation in the face of intense prejudice make being either homosexual or/and Aboriginal more than enough for one individual - particularly two-spirited youth - to cope with. Self-destructive behaviour among two-spirited youth in the forms of substance abuse, suicide, unsafe sexual practices, are very extensive..."

Honouring and Caring for Aboriginal People and Communities in the Fight Against HIV/AIDS: " This paper provides an organizational overview of Healing Our Spirit BC First Nations AIDS Society (Healing Our Spirit), and introduces the holistic healing and Aboriginal specific service delivery model that Healing Our Spirit uses to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The HIV/AIDS epidemic compels many Aboriginal communities to deal with the complex issues associated with HIV/AIDS. While in the process of strengthening and regaining cultural and social systems, Aboriginal peoples also face inter-generational, interconnected, and socio-economic issues. Specifically, these issues include sexual abuse, homophobia, shame, lack of housing, lack of education, and alcohol and drug use and addiction. In large part, these are a legacy of colonization and residential schools. Healing Our Spirit has developed culturally sensitive and relevant community development strategies to address the multiple and complex challenges in the field of HIV/AIDS..."

Youth For Diversity (Winnipeg, Manitoba, October 16-19, 2003 - Forum Report - Word 97 Download): "This report contains the ideas, knowledge and insight that took place over a three and a half day session in Winnipeg, Manitoba.  The “Youth For Diversity” Project, aims to bring approximately 25 youth together in one arena to discuss, debate and create ideas and plans around the issue of diversity.  Half of the session was spent looking at the individual and group definitions of diversity, with sessions that included both reflective and group exercises.  Small groups were formed to further flesh out concepts around diversity—racism, ageism, sexual orientation, access to resources, etc. - to further understand the impact that diversity has had on us and those around us.  To add to these sessions, three guest speakers were invited to address the group around particular issues that are present in our communities.  The guest speaker topics ranged from the particular Aboriginal issues that urban youth face today, poverty and homelessness amongst youth, homophobia and personal experiences with racial stereotyping and discrimination..."

Movies / Videos / The Arts

The Ultimate "Planet Out" Guide to Queer Movies (Subject: Native American Images). - Berdache (1997). - Two-Spirit People. - Film: Two-Spirited People. - Children of the Rainbow: Two-Spirited First Nations Group Takes Major Arts Award. - Kichx Anagaat Yatx'i (Children of the Rainbow): Related Information: PDF Download. - "The Berdache" - a play by Cheryl Ann Costa: PDF Download. - Other Plays by Cheryl Ann Costa. - The Work of Beth Brant. - Lambda Project tackles Two-Spirits for Upcoming Rainbow Theater Festival. - Two-Spirit People by Michael Beauchemin, Lori Levy, and Gretchen Vogel (Video: 1991). - Films: Long Eyes of Earth - Video: Honored by the Moon. - Two-Spirited and Multifaceted: Two controversial works are screened at the 2005 Vancouver Aboriginal Film Festival. - Fires Were Started: An Interview with Noam Gonick: "Noam Gonick’s new film, Stryker (2004), arrives with an immodest agenda. It wants to revise assumptions about indigenous people, and perhaps even change the way they view themselves..." - A Poet Finds His Past Is Just Where He Left It (Film Review): The Business of Fancydancing.

Tomson Highway, guest of honour at the 2006 Festival Voix d'Amériques (Word RTF Download): "He's Cree. He's gay. He spends half his time in the south of France and the other half in northern Ontario. Without a doubt, he is one of the leading Aboriginal writers in North America. And if that's not enough, he's also an accomplished pianist and an exceptional communicator who speaks English, French and Cree. He will be the guest of honour at the next Festival Voix d'Amériques, giving Montréal audiences a rare opportunity to catch this entertaining, outstanding artist and hear him perform in English and French.Tomson Highway is one of Canada's foremost playwrights. Born in a tent in a snow bank in northern Manitoba, he spent the first few years of his life in the forest before being placed in a residential school, like many of his generation. He studied at the University of Manitoba, in London, England, and at the University of Western Ontario, earning degrees in music and literature. His first play, The Rez Sisters, took the theatre scene by storm, winning the Dora Mavor Moore Award as well as representing Canada at the Edinburgh International Festival and being nominated for the Governor General's Literary Awards. He followed up with Dry Lips Oughta Move to Kapuskasing, which again won the Dora Mavor Moore Award along with the Floyd S. Chalmers Award."  - Tomson Highway. - The Universe of Tomson Highway.

Aboriginal Arts Kicks Off Summer Programs:  Aboriginal Arts Program; Banff. - WagonBurner Theater Troop: An Evolving Indian Theater Experience. - Native Spring 2005: "the annual festival of indigenous events in San Francisco by the Native American Cultural Center (NACC).  This year our theme is indigenous Americas, inspired by the remarkable film "The Motorcycle Diaries."  Our theme explores interrelationships between indigenous people and lands throughout the western hemisphere.  We are very excited to welcome the Fulni-O Tribe of Brazil to San Francisco as part of this year's festival.  So enjoy the great variety of performances, lectures, nature events, and activities -- there is something in Native Spring for everyone!  And be sure to check out the Native foods before your evening show."  - An aboriginal adaptation of Romeo and Juliet by the well-known Canadian actor and playwright Billy Merasty, the play is more commonly known as Godly's Divinia (A Love Story). Bill Merasty:  "Manitoba-born actor and writer Billy Merasty comes from a distinguished line of First Nations artists. His uncles, the late ballet dancer Renee Highway and the writer Tomson Highway provided gay-positive role models for the young Two-Spirited man growing up in a homophobic small town in northern Manitoba." 

Qwo-Li Driskill: "Cherokee Two-Spirit and Queer poet/activist/educator also of African, Irish, Lenape, Lumbee, and Osage ascent. An award winning writer, Qwo-Li's work has appeared in Many Mountains Moving, Mavin Magazine, The Raven Chronicles, Crab Orchard Review and the anthologies Nurturing Native Languages, Revolutionary Voices: A Multicultural Queer Youth Anthology and Speak to Me Words: Essays on Contemporary American Indian Poetry. Qwo-Li speaks across the country on issues of concern to First Nations Two-Spirit people, mixed-race people, queer and trans people, and people of color..." - Indigenous Literature with a Queer/LGBT/Two-Spirit Sensibility. - First Nations Literatures: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered, and Two-Spirited Native Writers.  - LGBT/TS indigenous resources.

Swanson, Kerry (2005). The Noble Savage Was a Drag Queen. Hemispheric Institute’s e-misférica forum, Fall, issue 2.2. PDF Download. Conclusion: "As Homi Bhabha writes, freedom for those marginalized by colonization exists through the creation of new hybrid spaces beyond the confines, constructs, and definitions created by the colonizers. Freedom is the act of creating and existing in a place beyond definitions, beyond black and white, somewhere in the blurry space beyond the culturally safe margins of identity. Sexuality and its many taboos are nothing more than imaginary constructs that are given codes and rules as a method to enforce power. Names, rules, and acceptance levels change according to the dominant ideology of a specific time and place. In this way, something that was once a source of pride can easily become a site of shame, as in the case of non-heterosexuality under Christianity. Monkman refuses to accept the Christian constructs that were established and reinforced by colonial rule, and continue to deny and suppress the once-celebrated sexual diversity within Native tribes.  Through his visual and performance art, Monkman successfully creates a third space, where a time-traveling half-breed drag queen can take ownership over her history and sexual identity. From this position, the margins are the center, and the power of definition belongs to the once-marginalized. In creating this space, Monkman acknowledges the rightful place of the Two-Spirited person in traditional history, and encourages discourse that reflects on and amends the loss of Native sexuality through Christian imperialism.

Internet Resources

Resources: - The International Two Spirit Gathering Website.  - 2-Spirited People of the 1st Nations. - NativeOut: Phoenix. - Tulsa Two-Spirit Society. - Minnesota Two-Spirit Society. -  Bay Area American Indian Two Spirits. - Bay Area American Indian Two Spirits (BAAITS). - Two-Spirit Society of Denver Links. - NorthEast Two-Spirit Society Links. - Two Spirit Circle of Edmonton Society. - 18th International Two Spirit Gathering 2006. - Canadian Rainbow Health Coalition: Two-Spirited Documents. - AIDS & Two-Spirited. - Two-Spirited People (McGill University). - International GLBT Native Press Archive. - Canadian Caucus for Two-Spirited and Queers of Colour, Egale Canada. - The Intersection of Sexual Orientation & Race: Considering the Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered People of Colour & Two-Spirited People (GLBT People of Colour & two-spirited People). - Oklahoma Gay Natives.  

Resource Links: - 2-Spirited People of the 1st Nations Links. - Two-Spirited Youth Program (Vancouver, B.C.) - First Nations and Two-Spirited People. - Two-Spirited Native People. - The Two-Spirit Tradition. - LookSmart Resources. - Two-Spirit Society of Denver Links.  - NorthEast Two-Spirit Society Links.  - Minnesota Two-Spirit Society. The International Two Spirit Gathering Website Links. - WhiteWolf's Den. -  Perceptions (the first twenty-two years 1983-2004) Indigenous People. - Native American Berdache -Two Spirit People - Gender Does Not Determine Sexuality.

Queer Native American Resources. - Rainbow Query.  - People of Color: Native American Links. - The Native American Resources Page by the Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Resource Center, UC-Riverside. - SAADAYA: A Call to Reclaim Queer Spiritual Traditions. - Yahoo Two Spirit Group.

Bibliographies

Bibliographies: - Learning about "Two-Spirited People" in the American Indians Studies Library.  - The two-spirit tradition in native American experience: Bibliography. - Books on native homosexuality. - Indigenous Literature with a Queer/LGBT/Two-Spirit Sensibility. - American Indian Gay/Lesbian Topics. - Two-spirit articles and books. - Gay & Lesbian History: North America: Pre-Modern History. - Two Spirit People: Selected Readings: PDF Download.

Books

Books: - Two-Spirit People Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality - 1997- edited by Sue-Ellen Jacobs, Wesley Thomas, and Sabine Lang. (20 Sample Pages) - The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture by Walter L. Williams (Review) (Excerpts) (20 Sample Pages) (Interview with Williams) - Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America - 1998 - by Will Rosco. (Review) (Excerpts). - The Zuni Man-Woman - 1991 -by Will Roscoe (Review). (Alternate Link) (22 Sample Pages). - Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas  - 1999 - by Richard C. Trexler: "His book is doubtless not only the best study of the American berdache, but also a significant contribution to the understanding of the development of power and authority in human society." (Publisher Reference) (Review) (Review) - Living the Spirit: A Gay American Indian Anthology - 1998 - edited by Will Roscoe. - Many Faces of Gender: Roles and Relationships Through Time in Indigenous Northern Communities (Northern Lights, Calgary, Alta.), V. 2. - 2002 - edited by Lisa Frink, Shepard Rita S., Gregory A. Reinhardt.

Books: - J. Spencer Rowe, Author Web Site: - The Last of the Dodo's: Voice of the Two Spirit (creative non-fiction): "The first ever published narrative book about Two Spirit Native Americans written entirely by a Two Spirit Native American. (Ojibwa) It speaks directly to the huge costs incurred when society removes the sacred from community." - Half Breed - RAW: ...is a photographic and text journey taking us on a healing path as we view each black and white photograph of a nude and semi-nude (exposed) Two-Spirit Native American. Complimented with Poetry this essay reaffirms the existence of the sacred Two-Spirit Native American people...   

Books: - Two Spirit People: American Indian Lesbian Women and Gay Men - 1997 - edited by Lester B. Brown. Also published in the Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 6(2) - Abstracts: Preface: Sharing the Gift of Sacred Being. - Women and Men, Not-Men and Not-Women, Lesbians and Gays: Gender Style Alternatives. - Gender Selection in Two American tribes. - American Indian Lesbians and Gays: An Exploratory Study. - Urban Lesbian and Gay American Indian Identity: Implications for Mental Health Service Delivery. - That's What They Say: The Implications of American Indian Gay and Lesbian Literature for Social Service Workers. - Developing AIDS Services for Native Americans: Rural and Urban Contrasts. - AIDS Prevention in a Rural American Indian Population: A Collaborative Effort Between Community and Providers.

Search GLBTQ: The Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender & Queer Culture. - Search BGLAD. - Search the QRD. - Search all GLBT Resource Directories. - Search Google.com. - Search Google Scholar. - Search Google's G:LBT Directory. - MSN Search. - Search findarticles.com: many full text articles and papers.

Academic Searches: Search IngentaConnect: The most comprehensive collection of academic and professional publications. - Search Project Muse: Scholarly Journals Online. - Search JSTOR: The Scholarly Journal Archive. - Search The National Library of Medicine.