Sectarianism: Sunnis and Shi`ites

The Caliphate

• Khalifs ("Caliphs") appointed as"successors" to Muhammad.
  
• Leadership of Muslim community ('Umma):
  • Administrative
    
  • Military
    
  • Judicial
    
  • Prayer
    

• --But not as a prophet.

Three main eras in history of Caliphate

1. 632-661--The Four "Rightly-Guided" Caliphs

   'Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, 'Ali

   • Original followers and companions of Muhammad.

   • Consolidated Islamic hegemony in Arabia

   • Redaction of the Qur'an

   • Expansion to Palestine, Middle-East, Persia, North Africa

   661-750--The 'Umayyad Dynasty

   • Founded by Mu'ayya

   • Centered in Damascus, Syria

   • Military character

   • Time of expansion: to Spain in West, India in East
     
     Concepts of

     • Dar al-Islam, ("abode of Islam"), lands under Muslim control;
     • Dar al-Harb ("abode of war"), lands ruled by unbelievers

     

   750-1258--The 'Abbasid Dynasty

   • Descended from Muhammad's uncle al-'Abbas.

   • Centered in Baghdad, Iraq.

   • Persian-style absolute monarchy: elaborate hierarchical royal court.

   • Attracted "Mawali", non-Arab Muslims.

   • Presided over Golden Age of culture: literature, arts, sciences, philosophy.

   • Fell to Seljuk Turks, then Mongols.

The Split between Shi'a and Sunna

Origins

• Original political split arose over succession of the office of Khalif
  Ali, the cousin and son-in-law (married to the Prophet's daughter Fatima) of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalif, assassinated and replaced by the Umayyad dynasty
  

  There had always been a faction that believed 'Ali should have been the first Khalif.

  Majority group (Approximately 89%) continued to support the "mainstream" line of Khalifs: Came to be known Sunnis, followers of the "sunna" (custom) of the Prophet as it is practiced and interpreted by the Islamic community, the Ummah.

  Dissenters: The Shia` ("faction") of `Ali.

  680--'Ali's younger son Husayn revolted and was killed in massacre at Karballah, Iraq.

  Commemorated annually on the tenth of Muharram.

  Separate Shi'ite states were established; e.g. Fatimids in Egypt built Al-'Azhar University.

Features of Shi'a Belief and Practice

• Believed that leader of 'Umma must be a descendant of Muhammad ("People of the house").

• Shi'ites believe that Muhammad had explicitly designated 'Ali as his successor at the pool of Ghadir al-Khumm:

  "Whoever has Muhammad as his master has 'Ali as his master."

• Shi`ites opposed the worldliness of the `Umayyad dynasty of Khalifs.

• Developed a theology that negated the Khalif and exalted their own leaders, the Imams.
  • The Imam is believed to be a fully spiritual guide, inheriting some of Muhammad's inspiration ("light"), not just a contractually elected administrator like the Sunni Khalif.

  • Imams are believed to be inerrant interpreters of law and tradition.

• Shi`ite theology is distinguished by its glorification of `Ali, at times bordering on deification.

• Strong theme of martyrdom and suffering, focusing on deaths of Husayn and other important figures in Shi'ite succession.
• Shi`ism attracted other dissenting groups, especially representatives of older non-Arab (Mawali) civilizations (Persian, Indian, etc.) that felt they had not been treated fairly by the Arab Muslims.

  Incorporated religions ideas from those cultures:

  • Mysticism

  • esoteric approach to the Qur'an

  • etc.

  Two major movements in Shia`:

  1. "Twelvers" (Fatimids):
     • Last acknowledged Imam, the twelfth, in the line, "disappeared" in 880.

     • Await Mahdi ("guide," a messianic figure).

     • Belief that the "hidden Imam" continues to guide religious scholars.

     • Major centres in Iran and Iraq.

  2. "Seveners" (Ismailis) split off at time of seventh Imam.
     • A medieval branch of the sect was known as a fanatical secret society (Assassins, etc.).

     • During the last centuries the existing Ismaeli line became very westernized and moderate, under the leadership of the Aga Khan.

     • Large economic empire, profits channeled to charitable work, especially development projects in East Africa.