Second Interval: c. 400 - c. 600 CE Disruption and Isolation Despite the well-intentioned reforms of Diocletian in the late third century, the division of the Roman Empire into two distinct administrative units initiated a split that would eventually sever the great empire. While the Eastern Empire remained relatively peaceful and Hellenistic culture continued to evolve, barbarian invasions to the north took their toll on the Western Empire. Fleeing before the predations of the Huns, the Gothic peoples surged across the Roman frontiers and, in 410 CE, the Visigoths sacked Rome. Although the actual damage to the city was likely minimal, the psychological impact was devastating. The heart of the Roman Empire, unmolested for more than six centuries, had been pierced by a foreign army. While the early Germanic rulers styled themselves after the Roman emperors and applied to Constantinople for confirmation of their authority, by the late sixth century it had become evident that the empire could not be reunited and, out of touch with the Hellenistic culture of the East, new vernacular languages and cultural forms began to evolve. The Romans provided a political model for the consolidation of royal power the Germanic successor states became established. The most important legacy, however, was the Church. Complete with a cohesive institutional structure, the Church became the primary receptacle of Roman culture, preserving Greco-Roman philosophy, theology, and art within the works of the early Christian writers whose seminal compositions were sheltered within the precincts of western Christianity and launched across Europe. The end of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 220 CE saw China enter into the Period of the Six Dynasties, a peculiarly misleading title since more than six kingdoms existed over the next three centuries. With the invasion by the northern steppe nomads in 317 CE, China was again fragmented into numerous small, relatively short-lived kingdoms of which the major ones were the Eastern Jin (317-420), the Tuoba Wei (386-550), the Liang (502-557), and the Northern Qi (550-577). The Tartar invaders gradually adopted Chinese cultural traditions and the Sui Dynasty, established in 589, began to move towards reuniting China. The Sui made extensive repairs to the Great Wall and completed the Grand Canal. But the forced labour utilised to complete these projects caused civil unrest and the emperor was assassinated in 618, terminating the Sui Dynasty. Second Era: c. 600 - c. 1000 CE The Re-establishment of Contact With the elimination of the Sui Dynasty in 618 CE, the Tang Dynasty rose to power and continued to exist until 907 CE. Building on Sui plans for unification, the Tang suppressed the pockets of local autonomy and ended the feuding of the minor states, establishing unity as the norm for the Chinese state.The civil service regained authority and examinations for entry were instituted, resulting in the creation of a new class of scholar-bureaucrats, whom Europeans would later call the Mandarins, who acted as a balance to the feudal aristocracy. These scholarly administrators extolled Confucianism, and the civil service examinations included classical Confucian literature. One of the most illustrious of the Tang rulers was Empress Wu (r. 684-683 CE) The concubine of the previous emperor, Wu Zetian seduced the new emperor, a relationship that was considered technically incestuous. Nevertheless, Empress Wu proved to be a brilliant administrator and especially adept at controlling the intrigue that infiltrated the imperial court. She ruthlessly eliminated rivals and restricted political promotion to officials who were loyal to her personally. Wu denied the succession of two of her own sons and seized the throne for herself, ruling alone until 705 CE when a palace coup forced her to abdicate in favour of her third son, Tang Zhongzong (r. 705-709 CE).  Endorsed by Tang emperors, Buddhism continued to flourish. The religious tolerance of the Mahayana sect was especially appealing and, as a result, acquired numerous minor deities, even though true Buddhism has no godhead. Lucrative trade and religious tolerance drew foreigners and, during the Tang Dynasty, the population of the bustling trade capital of Changan included Nestorian Christians, Muslims, and Jews.  The brilliant emperor Hsüan Tsung (r. 712-756 CE)  neglected his imperial responsibilities to pursue the courtesan Yang Kuei-fei (d. 756 CE) who used her influence to place her friends and relatives in important positions, including the Tartar general An Lu-shan, precipitating a rebellion in 755 CE. After negotiating alliances with several Central Asian kingdoms and receiving military aid from Caliph al-Mansur, the Tang regained political power but the central government never again exerted complete control and some frontier territories developed into hereditary kingdoms who  dismissed central authority by withholding taxes and tribute on a regular basis. The pattern of local usurpation of imperial power spread until only the Shaanxi province remained under the control of the central government by the ninth century.  As in the earlier period of fragmentation, political disunity and uncertainty elicited a cultural flowering as the Tang Dynasty began to crumble. The poets Li Po, Tu Fu, and Po Chü-i and the prose master Han Yü (768-824 CE) appeared and large-scale printing of books promoted cultural unity even as political unity disintegrated. The Tang Dynasty struggled on until 907 CE when political authority in China was again splintered during the period of the Five Dynasties until, iin 960 CE, the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) achieved dominance and China entered a glittering era of technological, artistic, literary, and military pre-eminence.  India Middle East The Indian Ocean trade routes that had languished during the disruptions of the Arabic world were re-established with vigour after the rise of Islam in the seventh century sent Arabs surging from Arabia. By the early eighth century, the Bedouins, fired by the Islamic jihad, had conquered virtually all of north Africa but southward expansion was held by the Sahara. Christianity in Africa was almost eradicated except for a tiny and determined population of Copts in Egypt. However, theological disputes proliferated after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, exacerbating the internal dissension that characterised the independent Berbers. Despite the common religion, the Muslims soon splintered and several independent groups established themselves in the Maghreb (western lands) of Africa. The fragmented political structure did not halt the spread of Islam and the Arabs had carried the faith across the desert by the twelfth century.  In the east, during the seventh century, Arabs and Persians established a string of immigrant settlements along the Benadir coast. Named the Zinj, these cities maintained independence and often fought amongst themselves but no single town ever achieved lasting domination. The loose confederation of cities grew rich from the Indian Ocean trade, drawing merchants from Persia, India, Africa, and China as the markets of the Zinj swelled with Persian carpets and silks, cut gems and jewellery from India, silver and tempered steel from the Levant, and porcelain from China. The innovations of the Iron Age continued to sweep across sub-Saharan Africa and the technologies of the Late Iron Age emerged around 900 CE. Iron-working methods improved so that land clearing and farming became more efficient, cattle-raising increased, and new ceramic styles developed. The Iron Age witnessed the rise of Sudanic civilisation, a far-flung network of distinct societies that shared common social, political, and religious structures. Reaching from the Nile to Zimbabwe and from the Red Sea to the Senegal River, it is likely that all Sudanic societies derived from a common ancestral source. The most obvious characteristic is the concept of the hereditary chief or king, which probably spread from the upper Nile and Egypt, and oral tradition begins the dynasties prior to Islamic incursions. A local priest-king and a select group of advisors governed Sudanic societies and, since tribute to the king was a fundamental element of the social structure, external trade was directly under royal control as were artisans and craftsmen. The result was the rise of economically strong kingdoms that would rise to dominate Africa after 1000. Also at this time, the languages that form the basis for all modern African languages took shape. Europe Index of Articles - Second Period - c. 400 - c. 1000 CE

Periods of Cross-Cultural Contact

Third Period Overview