Throughout the history of mankind, various groups of peoples have come into contact with one another. As a result of these contacts, ideas and traditions have been exchanged and adopted. The processes by which these exchanges occurred can be roughly classified as conversions. Although the term conversion often evokes images of cathartic religious transformations that are highly individualistic, large-scale adaptation may also be termed conversion and while religious conversion may be an aspect of this broader cultural shift, it is this latter definition, "group conversion," so to speak, that most typifies cultural exchanges in the Old World.

Cultural boundaries are designed to preserve that which is us from contamination by that which is other or them. Concepts of foreign and barbarian developed early in the history of humanity and created distinct prejudices against the introduction of new cultural traditions. Nevertheless, new ideas and cultural innovations were introduced. How were these innovations and ideas introduced? What processes permitted the acceptance of intrinsically foreign, and therefore unacceptable, concepts? The processes that render cultural boundaries permeable to outside influences are categorised as modes of cultural conversion. Cultural conversion may occur in one or more of three ways: through voluntary association, by pressure, and by assimilation.

US and THEM - Anthropological Concepts of Other

Conversion by Voluntary Association - Co-operation & Co-existence

Conversion by voluntary association results when political, social, or economic advantages were the initial incentive to association. The original motives open the way for acceptance of additional aspects of the foreign culture. In pre-modern times, commerce and trade provided the most significant introduction of foreign influences by voluntary association. Merchants often established diaspora communities, bringing religious and cultural traditions and support from their homelands. The usefulness of commercial alliances and the opportunity to exploit the trade networks of the foreigners often led the ruling elite to engage in close association with the traders. This close contact led to tolerance and acceptance of the traditions of the foreign culture.

Conversion by Pressure - Conflict, Conquest & Coercion

Although conversion by pressure cannot be termed voluntary, the degree of force and coercion varied greatly. Economic strategies, such as preferential taxation or trading agreements, were often as effective as full-scale military conquest. Indeed, military conquest was typically followed by the application of subtler pressures, such as commercial or judicial sanctions, to enforce the requirements of the new rulers. Military conquest also brought widely separated areas into contact, further facilitating cross-cultural exchange.

Conversion by pressure is also reflected in the interactions between populations of different sizes. While the customs of a culture that is shared by a large population are more likely to be considered dominant and to be accepted by a culture with a smaller population, this is not always the case. Although the ruling elite of a newly conquered territory may represent a smaller proportion of the total population of the region, their customs and traditions may be assumed by, or enforced upon, the conquered peoples. Conversely, a smaller ruling group may be forced to accept the prevailing customs to maintain order.

Conversion by Pressure - Migratory Pressures

This type of cultural exchange could also occur indirectly between cultures that were not involved in the initial military conflict. For example, in cases where military expansion forced the migration of a group into another region, they were brought into contact with new cultural traditions. The migrating group could be larger or smaller than the indigenous population and cultural conversion could occur through a combination of the previous modes, initiated by outside pressures.

Conversion by Assimilation - Adoption & Adaptation

In conversion by assimilation, the minority group adapts to the prevailing traditions of the majority, eventually adopting the new cultural system as its own. In some cases, the smaller group actively pursued the transition. At other times, the conversion occurred as a matter of convenience. When a population lost contact with its original cultural authorities, as in the case of a diaspora or migrant group, the traditions of the surrounding population were accepted to fill the gaps.

Combinations of Modes of Conversion

By now it will be obvious that these definitions overlap somewhat and all cultural conversions occurred through varying combination of all three modes. It is not always easy to define the primary mode of conversion. Even in cases of military conquest, the prevalent mode of conversion may not be readily apparent. For example, a military conquest may be maintained by adjusting local traditions to new social, political, and administrative structures. Religious missionaries also achieved large-scale conversion by various modes. The conversion could be through voluntary association, by establishing the advantages of the new religion, or through pressure, by utilising military or economic force.

Syncretism

Identification of the primary mode of conversion is often further complicated by syncretism, the blending of aspects of different cultural customs to create an entirely new cultural arrangement. Although technically different from conversion, syncretism was often the main method of conversion in the Old World. Even when a group made a conscious effort to adopt the new culture, vestiges of their earlier traditions often remained. The most basic levels of communication required some degree of syncretism and the communication of fundamental beliefs and concepts required far more advanced levels of cultural adaptation and understanding. Syncretism is especially evident in religious missionary movements. Missionaries normally borrowed heavily from the concepts and traditions of the cultures they wished to alter. This allowed them to communicate new religious ideas by using familiar concepts to bring about conversion.

Cultural Resistance

Although conversion and syncretism were common results of cross-cultural contact in the Old World, it should not be assumed that cultural resistance did not occur. In fact, the introduction of new cultural traditions often served to strengthen established traditions.

Like conversion and syncretism, cultural resistance took many forms in the Old World. Passive resistance occurred when the new cultural alternatives were ignored in favour of their own long-standing traditions. At other times, however, the resistance was aggressive and representatives of the new traditions were attacked. Resistance often led to dramatic confrontations such as large-scale persecution and repression.

Rebellion was a common result of cultural resistance and examples abound in the historical record, such as the Chinese under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. Another outcome of resistance was flight or migration. For example, the Manichaeans fled to central Asia and China to escape Islamic expansion while the Germanic peoples were pressured by the Huns to migrate into the Roman Empire. The most dramatic form of cultural resistance, however, was suicide or self-martyrdom. Regardless of the style of cultural resistance, the act of resistance represented an attempt to establish and define cultural boundaries and to limit incursion by foreign cultural traditions.

Through a combination of conversion, syncretism, and resistance, the cultures of the Old World evolved. Some cultures displayed abrupt and dramatic shifts in traditions while others barely changed at all over long periods of time. Some groups were the recipients of new traditions while other groups passed on their customs. Regardless of the rate or extent of cultural change, it is obvious that no culture or group of cultures developed in isolation. It is the purpose of this tutorial to focus on those incidents that created or encouraged the encounters and contacts that produced the cultures of the Old World.