In the United States the federal government first asserted their control over immigration policy in 1882. Earlier Passenger Acts designed to protect the immigrant while in transit had gradually given rise to other legislation. The banning of 'coolie' labour, with its disturbing similarities to slavery, led to the Immigration Act of 1875, which was primarily aimed at barring Chinese prostitutes and criminals from entering the nation. Nonetheless, it was not until the Immigration Act of 1882 that the federal government firmly claimed immigration as a matter of national, rather than regional, policy. This same act saw the exclusion of certain designated classes, a practice that had been seriously limited in earlier acts. Deportation policies and a minor head tax were also instated with this act, not for immediate use but to provide a framework for later legislation. Immigration from China was barred for ten years at this time and this policy was extended for a further twenty years by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1888. However, aside from this significant anti-Asian approach the general immigration policy of the United States at the end of the nineteenth century was not restrictive or exclusive. Immigrants were desired, and there were many laws protecting the rights of migrants while still at sea and after entering the country. Even the criminal class that had been banned in the Immigration Act of 1875, carefully excluded those whose crime was of a political nature. However, it was becoming clear to the United States government that a more effective system of regulation would soon be desirable.

Click here to read the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

From the mid-1880s to 1913 Congress attempted to devise an organised system for the enforcement of immigration control. Throughout this period immigration policy developed into an increasingly restrictive body of legislation. As time progressed, more and more classes were excluded, more provisions for penalties were added, and greater stretches of land border were closed. The government was especially active in eliminating Asian immigration. The Chinese had been barred by the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1888, and the Japanese were effectively, though not officially, barred by the Gentleman’s Agreement of 1907, which was an arrangement between the American and Japanese governments similar to the one that existed between Canada and Japan at this time. Legislation also excluded anarchists and contract labourers. The United States government, like the Canadian one, was attempting to protect the status quo, ideologically, economically, and racially. Although public pressure had a great deal of impact in ensuring the continued exclusion of Chinese migrants and contract labourers, Congress rejected many other exclusionary policies that were proposed during this period. It remained worthwhile to encourage and protect new immigrants, and it was not until the period from 1910 to the Great Depression that this system of regulation became significantly restrictive.

During the approximately fifteen years prior to the Great Depression the immigration policy of the United States became more and more restrictive. The Immigration Act of 1917 included a ‘barred zone’ provision that excluded all Asian immigrants, the culmination of decades of anti-Asian sentiment and legislation. Japan was officially excluded from this provision because it was an ally of the United States in the First World War, but the Gentleman’s Agreement minimised Japanese immigration. In 1917 a literacy test similar to that of Canada was put into effect. Proponents of the test had long believed that it would be the most effective means of restricting immigration, but when implemented its impact proved negligible. Perhaps because of this, the post-war period also saw the introduction of immigration quotas for the first time. The Immigration Act of 1921 created a system whereby immigration to the United States was limited to a percentage of the resident population of the country. In 1929 the act was amended to a more rigid system whereby each country recieved a designated portion of the total immigration allowed to the United States. In this way it was possible for the government to maintain the status quo regarding the ethnic composition of the nation by favouring certain countries over others. There were various exemptions granted to the quota laws and to the literacy test, on the whole designed to benefit designated relatives of citizens and resident aliens, as well as veterans and their families. Asian immigration continued to be severely curtailed.

The following decade, 1929 to 1939, saw serious economic and political upheavals that influenced the immigration policy favoured by the United States government. The Great Depression, the Nazi rise to power and the growing numbers of refugees seeking asylum, and the onset of the Second World War all caused change. The sweeping unemployment that accompanied the Great Depression ushered in an economically protectionist mentality. Numerous bills were presented to Congress, advocating the suspension of all immigration as long as Americans were out of work, and the deportation of non-Americans experiencing financial difficulties. Not all these bills were passed, but deportation of immigrants was especially common during this period, not only if they were becoming a financial drain on the state, but also if their political or ideological beliefs were considered subversive. This mirrored conditions in Canada, where fear of communism ran rampant following the Russian Revolution. On the whole, however, little concrete legislative change regarding immigration took place during this time; other concerns, both domestic and global, took precedence.

During the First World War the United States treated many immigrants as resident aliens, restricting their activities drastically. At the same time, labour shortages occurred, caused by internment and disenfranchisement of enemy aliens, and by the large numbers of civilians who enlisted and were removed from the labour force. Various programs were initiated for the temporary introduction of farmers and other labourers, mainly from Mexico.

From the late nineteenth century to 1940, Mexico had little time to concern itself with immigration policy. Revolution, civil war, social unrest, and rapid, often uncontrolled, industrialisation continued almost unbroken in Mexico throughout this period. Legislative policy regarding immigration was a luxury, and an unnecessary one at that; Mexico’s problems effectively halted immigration altogether. However, Mexicans were involved in some significant migrations, both internal and external. War and unrest caused notable internal migrations, pushing people from regions of strife to calmer areas, or from the countryside to urban environments. Also, many Mexicans fled their country altogether, moving north into the United States. However, this is dealt with more thoroughly in a later section.